G. Joncour, The fight against malaria in Madagascar, Bull World Health Organ, vol.15, pp.711-734, 1956.

J. Mouchet and S. Blanchy, Particularités et stratification du paludisme à Madagascar, Santé, vol.5, pp.386-394, 1995.

M. Randrianarivelojosia, A. Raveloson, A. Randriamanantena, J. J. Juliano, T. Andrianjafy et al., Lessons learnt from the six decades of chloroquine use (1945-2005) to control malaria in Madagascar, Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg, vol.103, pp.3-10, 2009.

R. E. Howes, S. A. Mioramalala, B. Ramiranirina, T. Franchard, A. J. Rakotorahalahy et al., Contemporary epidemiological overview of malaria in Madagascar: operational utility of reported routine case data for malaria control planning, Malar J, vol.15, p.502, 2016.

M. Albonico, D. Giorgi, F. Razanakolona, J. Raveloson, A. Sabatinelli et al., Control of epidemic malaria on the highlands of Madagascar, Parassitologia, vol.41, pp.373-379, 1999.

S. Laventure, J. Mouchet, S. Blanchy, L. Marrama, P. Rabarison et al., Rice: source of life and death on the plateaux of Madagascar, Sante, vol.6, pp.79-86, 1996.

F. Girond, L. Randrianasolo, L. Randriamampionona, F. Rakotomanana, M. Randrianarivelojosia et al., Analysing trends and forecasting malaria epidemics in Madagascar using a sentinel surveillance network: a web-based application, Malar J, vol.16, p.72, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-01647630

, National Malaria Control Programme of Madagascar. National strategic plan for malaria control in Madagascar 2018-2022. Progressive malaria elimination from Madagascar, 2017.

, Programme National de Lutte contre le Paludisme (PNLP), and ICF International. Madagascar Malaria Indicator Survey, 2011.

:. Calverton and P. Instat, , 2011.

P. Instat, Institut Pasteur de Madagascar (IPM), and ICF International. Madagascar Malaria Indicator Survey, 2013.

P. Instat, Institut Pasteur de Madagascar (IPM), and ICF International. Madagascar Malaria Indicator Survey, 2016.

S. Barmania, Madagascar's health challenges, Lancet, vol.386, pp.729-759, 2015.

R. E. Cibulskis, M. Aregawi, R. Williams, M. Otten, and C. Dye, Worldwide incidence of malaria in 2009: estimates, time trends, and a critique of methods, PLoS Med, vol.8, p.1001142, 2011.

K. E. Battle, D. Bisanzio, H. S. Gibson, S. Bhatt, C. E. Weiss et al., Treatment-seeking rates in malaria endemic countries, Malar J, vol.15, p.20, 2016.
DOI : 10.1186/s12936-015-1048-x
URL : https://malariajournal.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/s12936-015-1048-x

D. J. Weiss, B. Mappin, U. Dalrymple, S. Bhatt, C. E. Hay et al., Reexamining environmental correlates of Plasmodium falciparum malaria endemicity: a data-intensive variable selection approach, Malar J, vol.14, p.68, 2015.

, Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Centers for Environmental Information, Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP): Data Archive, Research, and Products, 2017.

A. M. Noor, V. A. Alegana, P. W. Gething, A. J. Tatem, and R. W. Snow, Using remotely sensed night-time light as a proxy for poverty in Africa, Popul Health Metrics, vol.6, p.5, 2008.
DOI : 10.1186/1478-7954-6-5
URL : https://doi.org/10.1186/1478-7954-6-5

A. Nelson, Travel time to major cities: A global map of Accessibility. Ispra: Global Environmental Monitoring Unit-Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, 2008.

. Accessed, , 2017.

T. G. Farr, P. A. Rosen, C. E. Crippen, R. Duren, R. Hensley et al., The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, Rev Geophys, vol.45, p.2004, 2007.

. Esri, ArcGIS Desktop 10.5.1. Redlands: Environmental Systems Resource Institute, 2017.

, Global Lakes and Wetlands Database, 2004.

A. Trabucco and R. J. Zomer, Global aridity index (global-aridity) and global potential evapo-transpiration (global-PET) geospatial database, CGIAR Consortium for Spatial, 2017.

C. Linard, M. Gilbert, R. W. Snow, A. M. Noor, and A. J. Tatem, Population distribution, settlement patterns and accessibility across Africa in 2010, PLoS One, vol.7, p.31743, 2012.

C. C. Funk, P. J. Peterson, M. F. Landsfeld, D. H. Pedreros, J. P. Verdin et al., A quasi-global precipitation time series for drought monitoring, U.S. Geological Survey Data Series, vol.832, 2014.

D. J. Weiss, S. Bhatt, B. Mappin, V. Boeckel, T. P. Smith et al., Air temperature suitability for Plasmodium falciparum malaria transmission in Africa 2000-2012: a high-resolution spatiotemporal prediction, Malar J, vol.13, p.171, 2014.

P. W. Gething, V. Boeckel, T. P. Smith, D. L. Guerra, C. A. Patil et al., Modelling the global constraints of temperature on transmission of Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax, Parasit Vectors, vol.4, p.92, 2011.

D. J. Weiss, P. M. Atkinson, S. Bhatt, B. Mappin, S. I. Hay et al., An effective approach for gap-filling continental scale remotely sensed time-series, ISPRS J Photogramm Remote Sens, vol.98, pp.106-124, 2014.

, Average land surface temperature, 2017.

, NASA Earth Data. MODIS (MOD 13)-Gridded Vegetation Indices (NDVI and EVI, 2017.

. Nasa-earth-data, Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center, 2017.

H. Rue, S. Martino, and N. Chopin, Approximate Bayesian inference for latent Gaussian models by using integrated nested Laplace approximations, J Royal Stat Soc Series B Stat Methodo, vol.71, pp.319-92, 2009.

M. Cameletti, F. Lindgren, D. Simpson, and H. Rue, Spatio-temporal modeling of particulate matter concentration through the SPDE approach, Adv Stat Ana, vol.97, pp.109-140, 2013.

D. Clayton and J. Kaldor, Empirical Bayes Estimates of Age-Standardized Relative Risks for Use in Disease Mapping, Biometrics, vol.43, pp.671-81, 1987.

L. Waller and B. Carlin, Disease mapping, Handbook of Spatial Statistics

. Kang, BMC Medicine, vol.16, p.71, 2018.

P. W. Gething, A. P. Patil, D. L. Smith, C. A. Guerra, I. R. Elyazar et al., A new world malaria map: Plasmodium falciparum endemicity in 2010, Malar J, vol.10, p.378, 2011.

B. L. Rice, C. D. Golden, E. J. Anjaranirina, C. M. Botelho, S. K. Volkman et al., Genetic evidence that the Makira region in northeastern Madagascar is a hotspot of malaria transmission, Malar J, vol.15, p.596, 2016.

S. Bhatt, D. J. Weiss, C. E. Bisanzio, D. Mappin, B. Dalrymple et al., The effect of malaria control on Plasmodium falciparum in Africa between, Nature, vol.526, pp.207-218, 2000.

, Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017. 41. National Malaria Control Programme of Madagascar. Malaria Programme Review, 2017.

, Antananarivo: Ministry of Health of Madagascar, 2017.

S. Randriamaherijaona, J. Raharinjatovo, and S. Boyer, Durability monitoring of long-lasting insecticidal (mosquito) nets (LLINs) in Madagascar: physical integrity and insecticidal activity, Parasit Vectors, vol.10, p.564, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-01649277

J. M. Cohen, L. Menach, A. Pothin, E. Eisele, T. P. Gething et al., Mapping multiple components of malaria risk for improved targeting of elimination interventions, Malar J, vol.16, p.459, 2017.

M. Virah-sawmy, L. Gillson, and K. J. Willis, How does spatial heterogeneity influence resilience to climatic changes? Ecological dynamics in southeast Madagascar, Ecol Monogr, vol.79, pp.557-74, 2009.

C. R. Burgert, J. Colston, T. Roy, and Z. B. , Geographic displacement procedure and georeferenced data release policy for the demographic and health surveys, DHS Spatial Analysis Reports, issue.7, 2013.

V. A. Alegana, J. Wright, C. Bosco, E. A. Okiro, P. M. Atkinson et al., Malaria prevalence metrics in low-and middle-income countries: an assessment of precision in nationally-representative surveys, Malar J, vol.16, p.475, 2017.

U. Dalrymple, B. Mappin, and P. W. Gething, Malaria mapping: understanding the global endemicity of falciparum and vivax malaria, BMC Med, vol.13, p.140, 2015.

W. G. Yalew, S. Pal, P. Bansil, R. Dabbs, K. Tetteh et al., Current and cumulative malaria infections in a setting embarking on elimination: Amhara, Ethiopia, Malar J, vol.16, p.242, 2017.

P. Corran, P. Coleman, E. Riley, and C. Drakeley, Serology: a robust indicator of malaria transmission intensity?, Trends Parasitol, vol.23, pp.575-82, 2007.

P. A. Zimmerman and R. E. Howes, Malaria diagnosis for malaria elimination, Curr Opin Infect Dis, vol.28, pp.446-54, 2015.
DOI : 10.1097/qco.0000000000000191

D. A. Helb, K. K. Tetteh, P. L. Felgner, J. Skinner, A. Hubbard et al., Novel serologic biomarkers provide accurate estimates of recent Plasmodium falciparum exposure for individuals and communities, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol.112, pp.4438-4485, 2015.

K. Ray, H. B. Upreti, R. N. Yadav, M. C. Sharma, A. K. Mukherjee et al., Evaluation of serology as a tool for malaria surveillance in East Champaran District of Bihar, Ann Trop Med Parasitol, vol.82, pp.225-233, 1988.

S. R. Elliott, F. J. Fowkes, J. S. Richards, L. Reiling, D. R. Drew et al., Research priorities for the development and implementation of serological tools for malaria surveillance, F1000Prime Rep, vol.6, p.100, 2014.

G. H. Stresman, J. C. Stevenson, N. Ngwu, E. Marube, C. Owaga et al., High levels of asymptomatic and subpatent Plasmodium falciparum parasite carriage at health facilities in an area of heterogeneous malaria transmission intensity in the Kenyan highlands, Am J Trop Med Hyg, vol.91, pp.1101-1109, 2014.

. The-world and . Bank, Madagascar: Measuring the Impact of the Political Crisis, 2013.

J. K. Baird, Malaria control by commodities without practical malariology, BMC Public Health, vol.17, p.590, 2017.

. Kang, BMC Medicine, vol.16, p.71, 2018.