K. Acevedo-whitehouse and A. Duffus, Effects of environmental change on wildlife health, Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, vol.364, pp.3429-3438, 2009.

B. F. Allan, F. Keesing, and R. S. Ostfeld, Effect of forest fragmentation on Lyme disease risk, Conserv Biol, vol.17, pp.267-272, 2003.

V. Arroyo-rodríguez and P. Dias, Effects of habitat fragmentation and disturbance on howler monkeys: a review, Am J Primatol, vol.72, pp.1-16, 2010.

R. H. Baayen, Analyzing Linguistic Data: a Practical Introduction to Statistics Using R, 2008.

D. Bates, M. Mächler, B. M. Bolker, and S. C. Walker, Fitting linear mixedeffects models using lme4, J Stat Softw, vol.67, pp.1-48, 2015.

T. Ø. Bechshøft, C. Sonne, R. Dietz, E. W. Born, D. Muir et al., Associations between complex OHC mixtures and thyroid and cortisol hormone levels in East Greenland polar bears, Environ Res, vol.116, pp.26-35, 2012.

J. M. Behnke, Parasites: Immunity and Pathology, the Consequences of Parasitic Infection in Mammals, 1990.

Y. Benjamini and Y. Hochberg, Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing, J R Stat Soc Ser B, vol.57, pp.289-300, 1995.

A. J. Bohonak and K. Van-der-linde, Rma: software for reduced major axis regression. Java version, 2004.

T. Boswell, S. C. Woods, and G. J. Kenagy, Seasonal changes in body mass, insulin, and glucocorticoids of free-living golden-mantled ground squirrels, Gen Comp Endocrinol, vol.96, pp.339-346, 1994.

G. Brearley, C. Mcalpine, S. Bell, and A. Bradley, Influence of urban edges on stress in an arboreal mammal: a case study of squirrel gliders in southeast Queensland, Australia. Landsc Ecol, vol.27, pp.1407-1419, 2012.

D. C. Bublitz, P. C. Wright, F. T. Rasambainarivo, S. J. Arrigo-nelson, J. R. Bodager et al., Pathogenic enterobacteria in lemurs associated with anthropogenic disturbance, Am J Primatol, vol.77, pp.330-337, 2015.

M. Cardillo, G. M. Mace, K. E. Jones, J. Bielby, O. Bininda-emonds et al., Multiple causes of high extinction risk in large mammal species, Science, vol.309, pp.1239-1241, 2005.

E. H. Carlitz, C. Kirschbaum, T. Stalder, and C. P. Van-schaik, Hair as a long-term retrospective cortisol calendar in orang-utans (Pongo spp.): new perspectives for stress monitoring in captive management and conservation, Gen Comp Endocrinol, vol.195, pp.151-156, 2014.

E. Carlitz, C. Kirschbaum, R. Miller, J. Rukundo, and C. P. Van-schaik, Effects of body region and time on hair cortisol concentrations in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), Gen Comp Endocrinol, vol.223, pp.9-15, 2015.

E. H. Carlitz, R. Miller, C. Kirschbaum, W. Gao, D. C. Hanni et al., Measuring hair cortisol concentrations to assess the effect of anthropogenic impacts on wild chimpanzees, 2016.

, PLoS One, vol.11, p.151870

C. A. Chapman, T. R. Gillespie, and T. L. Goldberg, Primates and the ecology of their infectious diseases: how will anthropogenic change affect host-parasite interactions?, Evol Anthropol, vol.14, pp.134-144, 2005.

C. A. Chapman, M. D. Wasserman, T. R. Gillespie, M. L. Speirs, M. J. Lawes et al., Do food availability, parasitism, and stress have synergistic effects on red colobus populations living in forest fragments?, Am J Phys Anthropol, vol.131, pp.525-534, 2006.

C. A. Chapman, T. L. Saj, and T. V. Snaith, Temporal dynamics of nutrition, parasitism, and stress in colobus monkeys: implications for population regulation and conservation, Am J Phys Anthropol, vol.134, pp.240-250, 2007.

E. Charmandari, C. Tsigos, and G. Chrousos, Endocrinology of the stress response, Annu Rev Physiol, vol.67, pp.259-284, 2005.

S. J. Cooke, O. Connor, and C. M. , Making conservation physiology relevant to policy makers and conservation practitioners, Conserv Lett, vol.3, pp.159-166, 2010.

, disturbance on sympatric cheirogaleid lemurs, Naturwissenschaften, vol.100, pp.943-956

M. Dammhahn and P. M. Kappeler, Comparative feeding ecology of sympatric Microcebus berthae and M. murinus, Int J Primatol, vol.29, pp.1567-1589, 2008.

K. H. Dausmann, Spoilt for choice: selection of hibernacula by Cheirogaleus medius, pp.205-214, 2013.

K. H. Dausmann, J. Glos, J. U. Ganzhorn, and G. Heldmaier, Physiology: hibernation in a tropical primate, Nature, vol.429, pp.825-826, 2004.

K. H. Dausmann, J. Glos, J. U. Ganzhorn, and G. Heldmaier, Hibernation in the tropics: lessons from a primate, J Comp Physiol B, vol.175, pp.147-155, 2005.

M. D. Davenport, S. Tiefenbacher, C. K. Lutz, M. A. Novak, and J. S. Meyer, Analysis of endogenous cortisol concentrations in the hair of rhesus macaques, Gen Comp Endocrinol, vol.147, pp.255-261, 2006.

F. S. Dhabhar, Enhancing versus suppressive effects of stress on immune function: implications for immunoprotection and immunopathology, Neuroimmunomodulation, vol.16, pp.300-317, 2009.

M. J. Dickens and L. M. Romero, A consensus endocrine profile for chronically stressed wild animals does not exist, Gen Comp Endocrinol, vol.191, pp.177-189, 2013.

J. A. Drewe, Who infects whom? Social networks and tuberculosis transmission in wild meerkats, Proc Biol Sci, vol.277, pp.633-642, 2010.

M. Eberle and P. M. Kappeler, Mouse lemurs in space and time: a test of the socioecological model, Behav Ecol Sociobiol, vol.51, pp.131-139, 2002.

M. Eberle and P. M. Kappeler, Sex in the dark: determinants and consequences of mixed male mating tactics in Microcebus murinus, a small solitary nocturnal primate, Behav Ecol Sociobiol, vol.57, pp.77-90, 2004.

M. Eberle and P. M. Kappeler, Family insurance: kin selection and cooperative breeding in a solitary primate, 2006.

, Behav Ecol Sociobiol, vol.60, pp.582-588

J. Fietz, Mating system of Microcebus murinus, Am J Primatol, vol.48, pp.127-133, 1999.

J. Fietz and J. U. Ganzhorn, Feeding ecology of the hibernating primate Cheirogaleus medius: how does it get so fat, Oecologia, vol.121, pp.157-164, 1999.

J. Fietz, H. Zischler, C. Schwiegk, J. Tomiuk, K. H. Dausmann et al., High rates of extra-pair young in the pair-living fat-tailed dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus medius, Behav Ecol Sociobiol, vol.49, pp.8-17, 2000.

N. H. Fourie and R. M. Bernstein, Hair cortisol levels track phylogenetic and age related differences in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity in non-human primates, Gen Comp Endocrinol, vol.174, pp.150-155, 2011.

A. Frid and L. Dill, Human-caused disturbance stimuli as a form of predation risk, Conserv Ecol, vol.6, p.11, 2002.

J. U. Ganzhorn, S. M. Goodman, and A. Dehgan, Effects of forest fragmentation on small mammals and lemurs, The Natural History of Madagascar. Chicago, pp.1228-1234, 2003.

J. U. Ganzhorn, J. Rakotondranary, and Y. R. Ratovonamana, Habitat description and phenology, Field and Laboratory Methods in Primatology, pp.51-69, 2011.

J. U. Ganzhorn, A. Hapke, P. Lahann, B. Raharivololona, J. Ramanamanjato et al., Population genetics, parasitism, and long-term population dynamics of Microcebus murinus in littoral forest fragments of south-eastern Madagascar, pp.61-69, 2013.

W. Gao, T. Stalder, P. Foley, M. Rauh, H. Deng et al., Quantitative analysis of steroid hormones in human hair using a column-switching LC-APCI-MS/MS assay, J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci, vol.928, pp.1-8, 2013.

L. Gibson, Possible shift in macaque trophic level following a century of biodiversity loss in Singapore, Primates, vol.52, pp.217-220, 2011.

T. R. Gillespie, C. A. Chapman, and E. C. Greiner, Effects of logging on gastrointestinal parasite infections and infection risk in African primates, J Appl Ecol, vol.42, pp.699-707, 2005.

R. González-de-la-vara-m-del, R. A. Valdez, V. Lemus-ramirez, J. C. Vázquezchagoyán, A. Villa-godoy et al., Effects of adrenocorticotropic hormone challenge and age on hair cortisol concentrations in dairy cattle, Can J Vet Res, vol.75, pp.216-221, 2011.

J. Grass, C. Kirschbaum, R. Miller, W. Gao, S. Steudte-schmiedgen et al., Sweat-inducing physiological challenges do not result in acute changes in hair cortisol concentrations, Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol.53, pp.108-116, 2015.

F. Gulland, The role of nematode parasites in soay sheep (Ovis aries L.) mortality during a population crash, Parasitology, vol.105, pp.493-503, 1992.

A. Hämäläinen, M. Dammhahn, F. Aujard, M. Eberle, I. Hardy et al., Senescence or selective disappearance? Age trajectories of body mass in wild and captive populations of a small-bodied primate, Proc Biol Sci, vol.281, 2014.

A. Hämäläinen, M. Heistermann, and C. Kraus, The stress of growing old: sex-and season-specific effects of age on allostatic load in wild grey mouse lemurs, Oecologia, vol.178, pp.1063-1075, 2015.

A. Hämäläinen, B. Raharivololona, P. Ravoniarimbinina, and C. Kraus, Host sex and age influence endoparasite burdens in the gray mouse lemur, Front Zool, vol.12, p.25, 2015.

R. F. Hechinger and K. D. Lafferty, Host diversity begets parasite diversity: bird final hosts and trematodes in snail intermediate hosts, Proc Biol Sci, vol.272, pp.1059-1066, 2005.

T. Hothorn, F. Bretz, and P. Westfall, Simultaneous inference in general parametric models, Biom J, vol.50, pp.346-363, 2008.

.. .. ,

P. J. Hudson, A. Rizzoli, B. T. Grenfell, H. Heesterbeek, and A. Dobson, The Ecology of Wildlife Diseases, 2002.

M. T. Irwin, Diademed sifaka (Propithecus diadema) ranging and habitat use in continuous and fragmented forest: higher density but lower viability in fragments, Biotropica, vol.40, pp.231-240, 2008.

M. T. Irwin, Feeding ecology of Propithecus diadema in forest fragments and continuous forest, Int J Primatol, vol.29, pp.95-115, 2008.

M. T. Irwin and J. Raharison, A review of the endoparasites of the lemurs of Madagascar, Malagasy Nature, vol.2, pp.66-93, 2009.

. Iucn, The IUCN red list of threatened species, vol.4, 2015.

K. E. Jones, N. G. Patel, M. A. Levy, A. Storeygard, D. Balk et al., Global trends in emerging infectious diseases, Nature, vol.451, pp.990-993, 2008.

P. M. Kappeler, S. Cremer, and C. L. Nunn, Sociality and health: impacts of sociality on disease susceptibility and transmission in animal and human societies, Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, vol.370, 2015.

F. Keesing, R. D. Holt, and R. S. Ostfeld, Effects of species diversity on disease risk, Ecol Lett, vol.9, pp.485-498, 2006.

A. J. Keyser, G. E. Hill, and E. C. Soehren, Effects of forest fragment size, nest density, and proximity to edge on the risk of predation to ground-nesting passerine birds, Conserv Biol, vol.12, pp.986-994, 1998.

C. J. Krebs and G. R. Singleton, Indexes of condition for small mammals, Aust J Zool, vol.41, pp.317-323, 1993.

A. Kuznetsova, P. B. Brockhoff, and R. Christensen, Lmertest: tests in linear mixed effects models, 2015.

S. M. Lehman, A. Rajaonson, and S. Day, Edge effects and their influence on lemur density and distribution in southeast Madagascar, Am J Phys Anthropol, vol.129, pp.232-241, 2006.

B. J. Macbeth, M. Cattet, G. B. Stenhouse, M. L. Gibeau, and D. M. Janz, Hair cortisol concentration as a noninvasive measure of long-term stress in free-ranging grizzly bears (Ursus arctos): considerations with implications for other wildlife, Can J Zool, vol.88, pp.935-949, 2010.

A. Macintosh, A. Jacobs, C. Garcia, K. Shimizu, K. Mouri et al., Monkeys in the middle: parasite transmission through the social network of a wild primate, PLoS One, vol.7, 2012.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00846254

M. L. Mckinney, Extinction vulnerability and selectivity: combining ecological and paleontological views, Annu Rev Ecol Syst, vol.28, pp.495-516, 1997.

J. Martin and D. Reale, Animal temperament and human disturbance: implications for the response of wildlife to tourism, Behav Processes, vol.77, pp.66-72, 2008.

R. D. Martin, A preliminary field-study of the lesser mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus, J.F. Miller 1777), Z Tierpsychol, vol.9, pp.43-89, 1972.

M. Martinez-bakker and B. Helm, The influence of biological rhythms on host-parasite interactions, Trends Ecol Evol, vol.30, pp.314-326, 2015.

K. Milton, Effects of bot fly (Alouattamyia baeri) parasitism on a free-ranging howler monkey (Alouatta palliata) population in Panama, J Zool, vol.239, pp.39-63, 1996.

S. Morand and R. Poulin, Density, body mass and parasite species richness of terrestrial mammals, Evol Ecol, vol.12, pp.717-727, 1998.

A. E. Müller and U. Thalmann, Biology of the fat-tailed dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus medius E. Geoffroy 1812): new results from the field, Evol Anthropol, vol.11, pp.79-82, 2002.

M. Nakagawa, F. Hyodo, and T. Nakashizuka, Effect of forest use on trophic levels of small mammals: an analysis using stable isotopes, Can J Zool, vol.85, pp.472-478, 2007.

C. L. Nunn and S. Altizer, Infectious Diseases in Primates: Behavior, Ecology and Evolution, 2006.

C. Nunn, S. Altizer, K. Jones, and W. Sechrest, Comparative tests of parasite species richness in primates, Am Nat, vol.162, pp.597-614, 2003.

D. A. Onderdonk and C. A. Chapman, Coping with forest fragmentation: the primates of Kibale National Park, Uganda, Int J Primatol, vol.21, pp.587-611, 2000.

C. Packer, S. Altizer, M. Appel, E. Brown, J. Martenson et al., Viruses of the Serengeti: patterns of infection and mortality in African lions, J Anim Ecol, vol.68, pp.1161-1178, 1999.

J. Peig and A. J. Green, New perspectives for estimating body condition from mass/length data: the scaled mass index as an alternative method, Oikos, vol.118, pp.1883-1891, 2009.

M. Perret, Influence du groupement social sur la reproduction de la femelle de Microcebus murinus (Miller, 1777), Z Tierpsychol, vol.60, pp.47-65, 1982.

M. Perret, Diurnal variations in plasma testosterone concentrations in the male lesser mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus), J Reprod Fertil, vol.74, pp.205-213, 1985.

A. Purvis, J. L. Gittleman, G. Cowlishaw, and G. M. Mace, Predicting extinction risk in declining species, Proc Biol Sci, vol.267, pp.1947-1952, 2000.

U. Radespiel, Sociality in the gray mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus) in northwestern Madagascar, Am J Primatol, vol.51, pp.21-40, 2000.

B. Raharivololona, Gastrointestinal parasites of Cheirogaleus spp and Microcebus murinus in the littoral forest Mandena, Madagascar. Lemur News, vol.11, pp.31-35, 2006.

B. Raharivololona, Parasites gastro-intestinaux de Microcebus murinus de la forêt de Mandena, Madagascar. Madag Conserv Dev, vol.4, pp.52-62, 2009.

B. Raharivololona and J. U. Ganzhorn, Gastrointestinal parasite infection of the gray mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus) in the littoral forest of Mandena, Madagascar: effects of forest fragmentation and degradation, Madag Conserv Dev, vol.4, pp.103-112, 2009.

. R-core-team, R: a Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2015.

G. Raso, A. Luginbühl, C. A. Adjoua, N. T. Tian-bi, K. D. Silué et al., Multiple parasite infections and their relationship to self-reported morbidity in a community of rural Côte d'Ivoire, Int J Epidemiol, vol.33, pp.1092-1102, 2004.

R. Rimbach, A. Link, M. Heistermann, C. Gómez-posada, N. Galvis et al., Effects of logging, hunting, and forest fragment size on physiological stress levels of two sympatric ateline primates in Colombia, Conserv Physiol, vol.1, p.31, 2013.

R. Rimbach, D. Bisanzio, N. Galvis, A. Link, D. Fiore et al., Brown spider monkeys (Ateles hybridus): a model for differentiating the role of social networks and physical contact on parasite transmission dynamics, Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, vol.370, 2015.

L. S. Ritchie, An ether sedimentation technique for routine stool examinations, Bull U S Army Med Dep, vol.8, p.326, 1948.

K. D. Rode, C. A. Chapman, L. R. Mcdowell, and C. Stickler, Nutritional correlates of population density across habitats and logging intensities in redtail monkeys (Cercopithecus ascanius), Biotropica, vol.38, pp.625-634, 2006.

L. M. Romero, Physiological stress in ecology: lessons from biomedical research, Trends Ecol Evol, vol.19, pp.249-255, 2004.

R. M. Sapolsky, L. M. Romero, and A. U. Munck, How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions, Endocr Rev, vol.21, pp.55-89, 2000.

L. Schäffler, J. Saborowski, and P. M. Kappeler, Agent-mediated spatial storage effect in heterogeneous habitat stabilizes competitive mouse lemur coexistence in Menabe Central, Western Madagascar, BMC Ecol, vol.15, p.7, 2015.

G. Schalk and M. R. Forbes, Male biases in parasitism of mammals: effects of study type, host age, and parasite taxon, Oikos, vol.78, pp.67-74, 1997.

B. Schmelting, P. Ehresmann, H. Lutermann, B. Randrianambinina, and E. Zimmermann, Reproduction of two sympatric mouse lemur species (Microcebus murinus and Microcebus ravelobensis) in north-west Madagascar: first results of a long term study, Diversity and Endemism in Madagascar, pp.165-176, 2000.

J. Schmid, Tree holes used for resting by gray mouse lemurs (Microcebus murinus) in Madagascar: insulation capacities and energetic consequences, Int J Primatol, vol.19, pp.797-809, 1998.

J. Schmid, Sex-specific differences in activity patterns and fattening in the gray mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus) in Madagascar, J Mammal, vol.80, pp.749-757, 1999.

J. Schmid and M. P. Kappeler, Fluctuating sexual dimorphism and differential hibernation by sex in a primate, the gray mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus), Behav Ecol Sociobiol, vol.43, pp.125-132, 1998.

J. Schmid and J. U. Ganzhorn, Optional strategies for reduced metabolism in gray mouse lemurs, Naturwissenschaften, vol.96, pp.737-741, 2009.

A. I. Schulte-hostedde, J. S. Millar, and G. J. Hickling, Evaluating body condition in small mammals, Can J Zool, vol.79, pp.1021-1029, 2001.

D. Schwab and J. U. Ganzhorn, Distribution, population structure and habitat use of Microcebus berthae compared to those of other sympatric cheirogalids, Int J Primatol, vol.25, pp.307-330, 2004.

T. Stalder and C. Kirschbaum, Analysis of cortisol in hair-state of the art and future directions, Brain Behav Immun, vol.26, pp.1019-1029, 2012.

T. Stalder, S. Steudte, R. Miller, N. Skoluda, L. Dettenborn et al., Intraindividual stability of hair cortisol concentrations, Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol.37, pp.602-610, 2012.

J. D. Stark, J. E. Banks, and R. Vargas, How risky is risk assessment: the role that life history strategies play in susceptibility of species to stress, Proc Natl Acad Sci, vol.101, pp.732-736, 2004.

A. Tilbrook, A. Turner, and I. Clarke, Effects of stress on reproduction in non-rodent mammals: the role of glucocorticoids and sex differences, Rev Reprod, vol.5, pp.105-113, 2000.

P. Vuarin, M. Dammhahn, and P. Y. Henry, Individual flexibility in energy saving: body size and condition constrain torpor use, Funct Ecol, vol.27, pp.793-799, 2013.

S. K. Wasser, K. Bevis, G. King, and E. Hanson, Noninvasive physiological measures of disturbance in the northern spotted owl, Conserv Biol, vol.11, pp.1019-1022, 1997.

E. Webb, S. Thomson, A. Nelson, C. White, G. Koren et al., Assessing individual systemic stress through cortisol analysis of archaeological hair, J Archaeol Sci, vol.37, pp.807-812, 2010.

M. Wikelski and S. J. Cooke, Conservation physiology, Trends Ecol Evol, vol.21, pp.38-46, 2006.