, and Maternal and Child Epidemiology Estimation Group. provisional estimates, 2015 2. O'Neill J. The Review on Antimicrobial Resistance, Antimicrobial Resistance: Tackling a crisis for the health and wealth of nations

D. G. White, S. Zhao, R. Sudler, S. Ayers, S. Friedman et al., The isolation of antibiotic-resistant salmonella from retail ground meats. The New England journal of medicine, vol.345, pp.1147-54, 2001.

S. Barber and . O', Neill Review into Antibiotic Resistance

, Antimicrobial resistance fact sheet, 2018.

P. Williams, D. Isaacs, and J. A. Berkley, Antimicrobial resistance among children in subSaharan Africa. The Lancet Infectious diseases, vol.18, pp.33-44, 2018.

L. Liu, K. Hill, S. Oza, D. Hogan, Y. Chu et al., Levels and Causes of Mortality under Age Five Years, Reproductive, Maternal, Newborn, and Child Health: Disease Control Priorities, vol.2, 2016.

L. Liu, H. L. Johnson, S. Cousens, J. Perin, S. Scott et al., Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality: an updated systematic analysis for 2010 with time trends since, Lancet, vol.379, issue.9832, pp.2151-61, 2000.

J. E. Lawn, S. Cousens, and J. Zupan, 4 million neonatal deaths: when? Where? Why?, Lancet, vol.365, issue.9462, pp.891-900, 2005.

D. You, L. Hug, S. Ejdemyr, P. Idele, D. Hogan et al., Global, regional, and national levels and trends in under-5 mortality between 1990 and 2015, with scenario-based projections to 2030: a systematic analysis by the UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation, Lancet, vol.386, pp.2275-86, 2015.

L. Liu, S. Oza, D. Hogan, Y. Chu, J. Perin et al., Global, regional, and national causes of under-5 mortality in 2000-15: an updated systematic analysis with implications for the Sustainable Development Goals, Lancet, vol.388, pp.3027-3062, 2016.

B. T. Huynh, M. Padget, B. Garin, P. Herindrainy, E. Kermorvant-duchemin et al., Burden of bacterial resistance among neonatal infections in low income countries: how convincing is the epidemiological evidence? BMC infectious diseases, vol.15, p.127, 2015.

S. Earnshaw, A. Mendez, D. L. Monnet, L. Hicks, M. Cruickshank et al., Global collaboration to encourage prudent antibiotic use. The Lancet Infectious diseases, vol.13, pp.1003-1007, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/s1473-3099(13)70315-3

A. Nogacka, N. Salazar, M. Suarez, C. Milani, S. Arboleya et al., Impact of intrapartum antimicrobial prophylaxis upon the intestinal microbiota and the prevalence of antibiotic resistance genes in vaginally delivered full-term neonates, Microbiome, vol.5, issue.1, p.93, 2017.

A. C. Seale and J. A. Berkley, Managing severe infection in infancy in resource poor settings, Early human development, vol.88, issue.12, pp.957-60, 2012.

A. L. Shane and B. J. Stoll, Neonatal sepsis: progress towards improved outcomes, The Journal of infection, vol.68, issue.1, pp.24-32, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jinf.2013.09.011

A. C. Seale, H. Blencowe, A. A. Manu, H. Nair, R. Bahl et al., Estimates of possible severe bacterial infection in neonates in sub-Saharan Africa, south Asia, and Latin America for 2012: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Infectious diseases, vol.14, pp.731-772, 2014.

J. L. Wynn, H. R. Wong, T. P. Shanley, M. J. Bizzarro, L. Saiman et al., Time for a neonatal-specific consensus definition for sepsis. Pediatric critical care medicine : a journal of the Society of Critical Care Medicine and the World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies, vol.15, pp.523-531, 2014.

D. Waters, I. Jawad, A. Ahmad, I. Luksic, H. Nair et al., Aetiology of community-acquired neonatal sepsis in low and middle income countries, Journal of global health, vol.1, issue.2, pp.154-70, 2011.

M. J. Bizzarro, C. Raskind, R. S. Baltimore, and P. G. Gallagher, Seventy-Five Years of Neonatal Sepsis at Yale: 1928?2003. Pediatrics, vol.116, p.595, 2005.

B. J. Stoll, The global impact of neonatal infection, Clinics in perinatology, vol.24, issue.1, pp.1-21, 1997.

D. Osrin, K. M. Tumbahangphe, D. Shrestha, N. Mesko, B. P. Shrestha et al., Cross sectional, community based study of care of newborn infants in Nepal, BMJ, vol.325, issue.7372, p.1063, 2002.

B. J. Stoll, N. I. Hansen, R. D. Higgins, A. A. Fanaroff, S. Duara et al., Very low birth weight preterm infants with early onset neonatal sepsis: the predominance of gramnegative infections continues in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network, The Pediatric infectious disease journal, vol.24, issue.7, pp.635-644, 2002.

S. Barnett, K. Azad, S. Barua, M. Mridha, M. Abrar et al., Maternal and newborn-care practices during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postnatal period: a comparison in three rural districts in Bangladesh, Journal of health, vol.24, issue.4, pp.394-402, 2006.

G. L. Darmstadt, V. Kumar, R. Yadav, V. Singh, P. Singh et al., Introduction of community-based skin-to-skin care in rural Uttar Pradesh, India. Journal of perinatology : official journal of the California Perinatal Association, vol.26, issue.10, pp.597-604, 2006.

A. Mercer, F. Haseen, N. L. Huq, N. Uddin, H. Khan et al., Risk factors for neonatal mortality in rural areas of Bangladesh served by a large NGO programme. Health policy and planning, vol.21, pp.432-475, 2006.

P. Turner, S. Pol, S. Soeng, P. Sar, L. Neou et al.,

, Antimicrobial-resistant Gram-negative Colonization in Hospitalized Cambodian Infants. The Pediatric infectious disease journal, vol.35, pp.856-61, 2016.

J. K. Bailey, J. L. Pinyon, S. Anantham, and R. M. Hall, Commensal Escherichia coli of healthy humans: a reservoir for antibiotic-resistance determinants, Journal of medical microbiology, vol.59, pp.1331-1340, 2011.

T. P. Van-boeckel, S. Gandra, A. Ashok, Q. Caudron, B. T. Grenfell et al., Global antibiotic consumption 2000 to 2010: an analysis of national pharmaceutical sales data. The Lancet Infectious diseases, vol.14, pp.742-50, 2014.

R. Laxminarayan and D. L. Heymann, Challenges of drug resistance in the developing world, BMJ, vol.344, p.1567, 2012.

T. P. Van-boeckel, C. Brower, M. Gilbert, B. T. Grenfell, S. A. Levin et al., Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.112, issue.18, pp.5649-54, 2015.

A. K. Zaidi, W. C. Huskins, D. Thaver, Z. A. Bhutta, Z. Abbas et al., Hospitalacquired neonatal infections in developing countries, Lancet, vol.365, issue.9465, pp.1175-88, 2005.

, M-15)-producing Enterobacteriaceae in Lebanon, Journal of clinical microbiology, vol.43, issue.7, pp.3309-3322, 2005.

P. Nordmann, T. Naas, and L. Poirel, Global spread of Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae. Emerging infectious diseases, vol.17, pp.1791-1799, 2011.

R. R. Persaud, M. B. Azad, R. S. Chari, M. R. Sears, A. B. Becker et al., Perinatal antibiotic exposure of neonates in Canada and associated risk factors: a populationbased study. The journal of maternal-fetal & neonatal medicine : the official journal of the European Association of Perinatal Medicine, the Federation of Asia and Oceania Perinatal Societies, the International Society of Perinatal Obstet, vol.28, pp.1190-1195, 2015.

L. M. Biehl, M. Schmidt-hieber, B. Liss, O. A. Cornely, and M. J. Vehreschild, Colonization and infection with extended spectrum beta-lactamase producing Enterobacteriaceae in high-risk patients -Review of the literature from a clinical perspective, Critical reviews in microbiology, vol.42, issue.1, pp.1-16, 2016.

A. Ndir, A. Diop, R. Ka, P. M. Faye, N. M. Dia-badiane et al., Infections caused by extended-spectrum beta-lactamases producing Enterobacteriaceae: clinical and economic impact in patients hospitalized in 2 teaching hospitals in Dakar, Senegal. Antimicrobial resistance and infection control, vol.5, p.13, 2016.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01327187

P. J. Stapleton, M. Murphy, N. Mccallion, M. Brennan, R. Cunney et al., Outbreaks of extended spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in neonatal intensive care units: a systematic review, Archives of disease in childhood Fetal and neonatal edition, vol.101, issue.1, pp.72-80, 2016.

W. H. Organization, Antimicrobial resistance: global report on surveillance, 2014.

R. P. Ambler, The structure of beta-lactamases. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological sciences, vol.289, pp.321-352, 1036.

K. Bush, G. A. Jacoby, and A. A. Medeiros, A functional classification scheme for betalactamases and its correlation with molecular structure, Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, vol.39, issue.6, pp.1211-1244, 1995.

A. Bauernfeind, I. Stemplinger, R. Jungwirth, S. Ernst, and J. M. Casellas, Sequences of betalactamase genes encoding CTX-M-1 (MEN-1) and CTX-M-2 and relationship of their amino acid sequences with those of other beta-lactamases, Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, vol.40, issue.2, pp.509-522, 1996.

L. Poirel, C. Heritier, V. Tolun, and P. Nordmann, Emergence of oxacillinase-mediated resistance to imipenem in Klebsiella pneumoniae, Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, vol.48, issue.1, pp.15-22, 2004.

S. Shaikh, J. Fatima, S. Shakil, S. M. Rizvi, and M. A. Kamal, Antibiotic resistance and extended spectrum beta-lactamases: Types, epidemiology and treatment. Saudi journal of biological sciences, vol.22, pp.90-101, 2015.

M. Gazin, F. Paasch, H. Goossens, S. Malhotra-kumar, W. P. Mosar et al., Current trends in culture-based and molecular detection of extended-spectrum-beta-lactamaseharboring and carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae, Journal of clinical microbiology, vol.50, issue.4, pp.1140-1146, 2012.

S. Oza, J. E. Lawn, D. R. Hogan, C. Mathers, and S. N. Cousens, Neonatal cause-of-death estimates for the early and late neonatal periods for 194 countries, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, vol.93, issue.1, pp.19-28, 2015.

, Enquête Nationale sur le Suivi des Objectifs du Millénaire pour le Développement, 2013. 64. PNUD, Rapport sur le Développement Humain, 2010.

E. Instat, . Démographique, and . De-santé, , 2009.

R. Pnud and . Sur-le-développement-humain, , 2014.

O. O'donnell, Access to health care in developing countries: breaking down demand side barriers. Cadernos de saude publica, vol.23, pp.2820-2854, 2007.

F. X. Weill, M. Demartin, L. Fabre, and P. A. Grimont, Extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase (TEM-52)-producing strains of Salmonella enterica of various serotypes isolated in France, Journal of clinical microbiology, vol.42, issue.7, pp.3359-62, 2004.

M. Padget, J. Tamarelle, P. Herindrainy, A. Ndir, D. Sarr et al., A community survey of antibiotic consumption among children in Madagascar and Senegal: the importance of healthcare access and care quality, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, vol.72, issue.2, pp.564-73, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-01649233

T. Andriatahina, F. Randrianirina, E. R. Hariniana, A. Talarmin, H. Raobijaona et al., High prevalence of fecal carriage of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae in a pediatric unit in Madagascar, BMC infectious diseases, vol.10, p.204
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00510748

P. Herindrainy, F. Randrianirina, R. Ratovoson, R. Hariniana, E. Buisson et al., Rectal carriage of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing gram-negative bacilli in community settings in Madagascar, PloS one, vol.6, issue.7, p.22738, 2011.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00614552

V. Nordberg, Q. Peralta, A. Galindo, T. Turlej-rogacka, A. Iversen et al., High proportion of intestinal colonization with successful epidemic clones of ESBLproducing Enterobacteriaceae in a neonatal intensive care unit in Ecuador, PloS one, vol.8, issue.10, p.76597, 2013.

G. J. Chan, J. K. Modak, A. A. Mahmud, A. H. Baqui, R. E. Black et al., Extended-Spectrum beta-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae in Children: Old Foe, Emerging Threat, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, vol.33, pp.971-977, 2013.

I. H. Lohr, S. Rettedal, O. B. Natas, U. Naseer, K. Oymar et al., Long-term faecal carriage in infants and intra-household transmission of CTX-M-15-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae following a nosocomial outbreak, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, vol.68, issue.5, pp.1043-1051, 2013.

V. Dubois, D. Barbeyrac, B. Rogues, A. M. Arpin, C. Coulange et al., CTX-M-producing Escherichia coli in a maternity ward: a likely community importation and evidence of mother-to-neonate transmission, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, vol.65, issue.7, pp.1368-71, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00522687

S. Rettedal, I. H. Lohr, E. Bernhoff, O. B. Natas, A. Sundsfjord et al., Extendedspectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae among pregnant women in Norway: prevalence and maternal-neonatal transmission, Journal of perinatology : official journal of the California Perinatal Association, vol.35, issue.11, pp.907-919, 2015.

N. Sethaphanich, P. Santanirand, S. Rattanasiri, C. Techasaensiri, S. Chaisavaneeyakorn et al., Pediatric extended spectrum beta-lactamase infection: Community-acquired infection and treatment options, Pediatrics international : official journal of the Japan Pediatric Society, vol.58, issue.5, pp.338-384, 2016.

S. M. Hijazi, M. A. Fawzi, F. M. Ali, A. E. Galil, and K. H. , Prevalence and characterization of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases producing Enterobacteriaceae in healthy children and associated risk factors, Annals of clinical microbiology and antimicrobials, vol.15, p.3, 2016.

N. T. Mueller, E. Bakacs, J. Combellick, Z. Grigoryan, and M. G. Dominguez-bello, The infant microbiome development: mom matters, Trends in molecular medicine, vol.21, issue.2, pp.109-126, 2015.

G. J. Chan, A. C. Lee, A. H. Baqui, J. Tan, and R. E. Black, Risk of early-onset neonatal infection with maternal infection or colonization: a global systematic review and meta-analysis, PLoS medicine, vol.10, issue.8, p.1001502, 2013.

L. A. Denkel, F. Schwab, A. Kola, R. Leistner, L. Garten et al., The mother as most important risk factor for colonization of very low birth weight (VLBW) infants with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-E), The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, vol.69, issue.8, pp.2230-2237, 2014.

X. Li, X. Xu, X. Yang, M. Luo, P. Liu et al., Risk factors for the infection and/or colonization of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing bacteria in a neonatal intensive care unit: a meta-analysis. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 2017.

S. Rettedal, H. Lohr, I. Natas, O. Sundsfjord, A. Oymar et al., Risk factors for acquisition of CTX-M-15 extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae during an outbreak in a neonatal intensive care unit in Norway, Scandinavian journal of infectious diseases, vol.45, issue.1, pp.54-62, 2013.

H. Abdel-hady, S. Hawas, M. El-daker, and R. El-kady, Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in neonatal intensive care unit, vol.28, pp.685-90, 2008.

V. Crivaro, M. Bagattini, M. F. Salza, F. Raimondi, F. Rossano et al., Risk factors for extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Serratia marcescens and Klebsiella pneumoniae acquisition in a neonatal intensive care unit, The Journal of hospital infection, vol.67, issue.2, pp.135-176, 2007.

F. J. Perez-perez and N. D. Hanson, Detection of plasmid-mediated AmpC beta-lactamase genes in clinical isolates by using multiplex PCR, Journal of clinical microbiology, vol.40, issue.6, pp.2153-62, 2002.

N. Kayange, E. Kamugisha, D. L. Mwizamholya, J. S. Mshana, and S. E. , Predictors of positive blood culture and deaths among neonates with suspected neonatal sepsis in a tertiary hospital, BMC pediatrics, vol.10, p.39, 2010.

G. Arlet, M. Rouveau, and A. Philippon, Substitution of alanine for aspartate at position 179 in the SHV-6 extended-spectrum beta-lactamase, FEMS microbiology letters, vol.152, issue.1, pp.163-170, 1997.

A. Bauernfeind, I. Stemplinger, R. Jungwirth, and H. Giamarellou, Characterization of the plasmidic beta-lactamase CMY-2, which is responsible for cephamycin resistance, Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, vol.40, issue.1, pp.221-225, 1996.

A. M. Queenan and K. Bush, Carbapenemases: the versatile beta-lactamases, Clinical microbiology reviews, vol.20, issue.3, pp.440-58, 2007.
DOI : 10.1128/cmr.00001-07

URL : https://cmr.asm.org/content/20/3/440.full.pdf

P. Nordmann, L. Poirel, A. Carrer, M. A. Toleman, and T. R. Walsh, How to detect NDM-1 producers, Journal of clinical microbiology, vol.49, issue.2, pp.718-739, 2011.
DOI : 10.1128/jcm.01773-10

URL : https://jcm.asm.org/content/49/2/718.full.pdf

E. Nelson, J. Kayega, J. Seni, M. F. Mushi, B. R. Kidenya et al., Evaluation of existence and transmission of extended spectrum beta lactamase producing bacteria from post-delivery women to neonates at, Bugando Medical Center, vol.7, p.279, 2014.

A. Pathak, S. P. Chandran, K. Mahadik, R. Macaden, and C. S. Lundborg, Frequency and factors associated with carriage of multi-drug resistant commensal Escherichia coli among women attending antenatal clinics in central India, BMC infectious diseases, vol.13, p.199, 2013.

C. Kothari, R. Gaind, L. C. Singh, A. Sinha, V. Kumari et al., Community acquisition of beta-lactamase producing Enterobacteriaceae in neonatal gut, BMC microbiology, vol.13, p.136, 2013.

R. E. Warren, G. Harvey, R. Carr, D. Ward, and A. Doroshenko, Control of infections due to extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing organisms in hospitals and the community

, Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, vol.14, pp.124-157, 2008.

S. Salminen, G. R. Gibson, A. L. Mccartney, and E. Isolauri, Influence of mode of delivery on gut microbiota composition in seven year old children, Gut, vol.53, issue.9, pp.1388-1397, 2004.

N. Jazmati, R. Hein, and A. Hamprecht, Use of an Enrichment Broth Improves Detection of Extended-Spectrum-Beta-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae in Clinical Stool Samples, Journal of clinical microbiology, vol.54, issue.2, pp.467-70, 2016.

, Levels & Trends in Child Mortality, Estimates Developed by the UN Interagency Group for Child Mortality Estimation, 2015.

S. Bhattacharya, Early diagnosis of resistant pathogens: how can it improve antimicrobial treatment?, Virulence, vol.4, issue.2, pp.172-84, 2013.
DOI : 10.4161/viru.23326

URL : http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc3654618?pdf=render

D. L. Paterson and R. A. Bonomo, Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: a clinical update, Clinical microbiology reviews, vol.18, issue.4, pp.657-86, 2005.
DOI : 10.1128/cmr.18.4.657-686.2005

URL : https://cmr.asm.org/content/18/4/657.full.pdf

P. Bourlioux, B. Koletzko, F. Guarner, and V. Braesco, The intestine and its microflora are partners for the protection of the host: report on the Danone Symposium "The Intelligent Intestine, The American journal of clinical nutrition, vol.78, issue.4, pp.675-83, 2002.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00416301

M. A. Carl, I. M. Ndao, A. C. Springman, S. D. Manning, J. R. Johnson et al., Sepsis from the gut: the enteric habitat of bacteria that cause late-onset neonatal bloodstream infections. Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, vol.58, pp.1211-1219, 2014.

, European Committee on antimicrobial Susceptibility testing (EUCAST). Recommandations Janvier, vol.1, 2015.

C. Mammina, D. Carlo, P. Cipolla, D. Giuffre, M. Casuccio et al., Surveillance of multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacilli in a neonatal intensive care unit: prominent role of cross transmission, American journal of infection control, vol.35, issue.4, pp.222-252, 2007.

E. Ruppe, P. L. Woerther, A. Diop, A. M. Sene, D. Costa et al., Carriage of CTX-M-15-producing Escherichia coli isolates among children living in a remote village in Senegal, Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, vol.53, issue.7, pp.3135-3142, 2009.

F. Chereau, P. Herindrainy, B. Garin, B. T. Huynh, F. Randrianirina et al., Colonization of extended-spectrum-beta-lactamaseand NDM-1-producing Enterobacteriaceae among pregnant women in the community in a low-income country: a potential reservoir for transmission of multiresistant Enterobacteriaceae to neonates, Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, vol.59, issue.6, pp.3652-3657, 2015.

M. G. Tellevik, B. Blomberg, O. Kommedal, S. Y. Maselle, N. Langeland et al., High Prevalence of Faecal Carriage of ESBL-Producing Enterobacteriaceae among Children in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. PloS one, vol.11, issue.12, p.168024, 2016.

T. Andriatahina, F. Randrianirina, E. R. Hariniana, A. Talarmin, H. Raobijaona et al., High prevalence of fecal carriage of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae in a pediatric unit in Madagascar, BMC infectious diseases, vol.10, p.204, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00510748

P. Das, A. K. Singh, T. Pal, S. Dasgupta, T. Ramamurthy et al., Colonization of the gut with Gram-negative bacilli, its association with neonatal sepsis and its clinical relevance in a developing country, Journal of medical microbiology, vol.60, pp.1651-60, 2011.

P. L. Woerther, C. Angebault, H. Jacquier, H. C. Hugede, A. C. Janssens et al., Massive increase, spread, and exchange of extended spectrum beta-lactamase-encoding genes among intestinal Enterobacteriaceae in hospitalized children with severe acute malnutrition in Niger. Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, vol.53, pp.677-85, 2011.

A. Peretz, A. Skuratovsky, E. Khabra, A. Adler, N. Pastukh et al., Peripartum maternal transmission of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase organism to newborn infants. Diagnostic microbiology and infectious disease, 2016.

S. M. Hijazi, M. A. Fawzi, and F. M. Ali, Abd El Galil KH. Multidrug-resistant ESBLproducing Enterobacteriaceae and associated risk factors in community infants in Lebanon, Journal of infection in developing countries, vol.10, issue.9, pp.947-55, 2016.

T. Ge, F. Moges, S. Eshetie, B. Yeshitela, and E. Abate, Bacterial etiologic agents causing neonatal sepsis and associated risk factors in Gondar, Northwest Ethiopia, BMC pediatrics, vol.17, issue.1, p.137, 2017.

S. Shakil, S. Z. Ali, M. Akram, S. M. Ali, and A. U. Khan, Risk factors for extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae acquisition in a neonatal intensive care unit, Journal of tropical pediatrics, vol.56, issue.2, pp.90-96, 2010.

M. J. Blaser and S. Falkow, What are the consequences of the disappearing human microbiota?, Nature reviews Microbiology, vol.7, issue.12, pp.887-94, 2009.

M. G. Dominguez-bello, E. K. Costello, M. Contreras, M. Magris, G. Hidalgo et al., Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.107, issue.26, pp.11971-11976, 2010.

P. Buekens, S. Curtis, and S. Alayon, Demographic and Health Surveys: caesarean section rates in sub-Saharan Africa, BMJ, vol.326, issue.7381, p.136, 2003.

F. Althabe, C. Sosa, J. M. Belizan, L. Gibbons, F. Jacquerioz et al., Cesarean section rates and maternal and neonatal mortality in low-, medium-, and high-income countries: an ecological study, Birth, vol.33, issue.4, pp.270-277, 2006.

C. K. Stanton and S. A. Holtz, Levels and trends in cesarean birth in the developing world, Studies in family planning, vol.37, issue.1, pp.41-49, 2006.

A. P. Betran, M. Merialdi, J. A. Lauer, W. Bing-shun, T. J. Van-look et al., Rates of caesarean section: analysis of global, regional and national estimates. Paediatric and perinatal epidemiology, vol.21, pp.98-113, 2007.

J. P. Nelson, Indications and appropriateness of caesarean sections performed in a tertiary referral centre in Uganda: a retrospective descriptive study. The Pan African medical journal, vol.26, p.64, 2017.

I. Mylonas, Antibiotic chemotherapy during pregnancy and lactation period: aspects for consideration. Archives of gynecology and obstetrics, vol.283, pp.7-18, 2011.

I. N. Okeke, R. Laxminarayan, Z. A. Bhutta, A. G. Duse, P. Jenkins et al., Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part I: recent trends and current status. The Lancet Infectious diseases, vol.5, pp.481-93, 2005.

H. Goossens, Antibiotic consumption and link to resistance. Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, vol.15, pp.12-17, 2009.

L. M. Bebell and A. N. Muiru, Antibiotic use and emerging resistance: how can resourcelimited countries turn the tide? Global heart, vol.9, pp.347-58, 2014.

L. J. Shallcross and D. S. Davies, Antibiotic overuse: a key driver of antimicrobial resistance. The British journal of general practice : the journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners, vol.64, pp.604-609, 2014.
DOI : 10.3399/bjgp14x682561

URL : https://bjgp.org/content/64/629/604.full.pdf

K. Graham, C. Sinyangwe, S. Nicholas, R. King, S. Mukupa et al., Rational use of antibiotics by community health workers and caregivers for children with suspected pneumonia in Zambia: a cross-sectional mixed methods study, BMC public health, vol.16, p.897, 2016.

D. K. Byarugaba, A view on antimicrobial resistance in developing countries and responsible risk factors, International journal of antimicrobial agents, vol.24, issue.2, pp.105-115, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2004.02.015

A. Bartoloni, F. Bartalesi, A. Mantella, E. Dell'amico, M. Roselli et al., High prevalence of acquired antimicrobial resistance unrelated to heavy antimicrobial consumption. The Journal of infectious diseases, vol.189, pp.1291-1295, 2004.
DOI : 10.1086/382191

URL : https://academic.oup.com/jid/article-pdf/189/7/1291/2593218/189-7-1291.pdf

J. L. Walson, B. Marshall, B. M. Pokhrel, K. K. Kafle, and S. B. Levy, Carriage of antibioticresistant fecal bacteria in Nepal reflects proximity to Kathmandu, The Journal of infectious diseases, vol.184, issue.9, pp.1163-1172, 2001.

I. N. Okeke, A. Lamikanra, and R. Edelman, Socioeconomic and behavioral factors leading to acquired bacterial resistance to antibiotics in developing countries, Emerging infectious diseases, vol.5, issue.1, pp.18-27, 1999.
DOI : 10.3201/eid0501.990103

URL : https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0501.990103

T. Kelesidis, I. Kelesidis, P. I. Rafailidis, and M. E. Falagas, Counterfeit or substandard antimicrobial drugs: a review of the scientific evidence, Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, vol.60, issue.2, pp.214-250, 2007.

T. S. Andriamanantena, E. Ratsima, H. C. Rakotonirina, F. Randrianirina, L. Ramparany et al., Dissemination of multidrug resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in various hospitals of Antananarivo Madagascar, Annals of clinical microbiology and antimicrobials, vol.9, p.17, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00510777

A. K. Zaidi, D. Thaver, S. A. Ali, and T. A. Khan, Pathogens associated with sepsis in newborns and young infants in developing countries. The Pediatric infectious disease journal, vol.28, pp.10-18, 2009.
DOI : 10.1097/inf.0b013e3181958769

B. T. Huynh, E. Kermorvant-duchemin, P. Herindrainy, M. Padget, F. Rakotoarimanana et al., Bacterial Infections in Neonates, vol.24, issue.4, pp.710-717, 2012.

S. K. Saha, S. J. Schrag, S. El-arifeen, L. C. Mullany, S. Islam et al., Causes and incidence of community-acquired serious infections among young children in south Asia (ANISA): an observational cohort study, Lancet, vol.392, pp.145-59, 2018.

A. Bulabula, A. Dramowski, and S. Mehtar, Maternal colonization or infection with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases, vol.64, pp.58-66, 2017.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ijid.2017.08.015

URL : https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2017.08.015

M. H. Nicolas-chanoine, C. Gruson, S. Bialek-davenet, X. Bertrand, F. Thomas-jean et al., 10-Fold increase (2006-11) in the rate of healthy subjects with extendedspectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli faecal carriage in a Parisian check-up centre, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, vol.68, issue.3, pp.562-570, 2013.

C. Arpin, C. Quentin, F. Grobost, E. Cambau, J. Robert et al., Nationwide survey of extended-spectrum {beta}-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in the French community setting, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, vol.63, issue.6, pp.1205-1219, 2009.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00426312

T. M. Coque, F. Baquero, and R. Canton, Increasing prevalence of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae in Europe. Euro surveillance : bulletin Europeen sur les maladies transmissibles = European communicable disease bulletin, vol.13, 2008.

Y. Caron, R. Chheang, N. Puthea, M. Soda, S. Boyer et al., Beta-lactam resistance among Enterobacteriaceae in Cambodia: The four-year itch. International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases, vol.66, pp.74-83, 2018.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-01739344

U. Luvsansharav, I. Hirai, A. Nakata, K. Imura, K. Yamauchi et al., Prevalence of and risk factors associated with faecal carriage of CTX-M ?-lactamaseproducing Enterobacteriaceae in rural Thai communities, Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, vol.67, issue.7, pp.1769-74, 2012.

L. A. Denkel, P. Gastmeier, and B. Piening, To screen or not to screen mothers of preterm infants for extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-E), vol.35, pp.893-897, 2015.

H. E. Villar, V. Aubert, M. N. Baserni, and M. B. Jugo, Maternal carriage of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli isolates in Argentina, J Chemother, vol.25, issue.6, pp.324-331, 2013.

E. D. Charlebois, F. Perdreau-remington, B. Kreiswirth, D. R. Bangsberg, D. Ciccarone et al., Origins of Community Strains of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol.39, issue.1, pp.47-54, 2004.
DOI : 10.1086/421090

URL : https://academic.oup.com/cid/article-pdf/39/1/47/900337/39-1-47.pdf

E. Larson, Community Factors in the Development of Antibiotic Resistance, Annual Review of Public Health, vol.28, issue.1, pp.435-482, 2007.

H. Goossens and M. Sprenger, Community acquired infections and bacterial resistance, BMJ : British Medical Journal, vol.317, issue.7159, pp.654-661, 1998.
DOI : 10.1136/bmj.317.7159.654

URL : http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc1113837?pdf=render

C. Palmer, E. M. Bik, D. B. Digiulio, D. A. Relman, and P. O. Brown, Development of the human infant intestinal microbiota, PLoS biology, vol.5, issue.7, p.177, 2007.

G. Biasucci, M. Rubini, S. Riboni, L. Morelli, E. Bessi et al., Mode of delivery affects the bacterial community in the newborn gut, Early human development, vol.86, issue.1, pp.13-18, 2010.

J. Penders, C. Thijs, C. Vink, F. F. Stelma, B. Snijders et al., Factors influencing the composition of the intestinal microbiota in early infancy, Pediatrics, vol.118, issue.2, pp.511-532, 2006.

D. Tande, S. Boisrame-gastrin, M. R. Munck, G. Hery-arnaud, S. Gouriou et al., Intrafamilial transmission of extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica Babelsberg among the families of internationally adopted children, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, vol.65, issue.5, pp.859-65, 2010.

A. Valverde, F. Grill, T. M. Coque, V. Pintado, F. Baquero et al., High rate of intestinal colonization with extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase-producing organisms in household contacts of infected community patients, Journal of clinical microbiology, vol.46, issue.8, pp.2796-2805, 2008.

P. B. Eckburg, E. M. Bik, C. N. Bernstein, E. Purdom, L. Dethlefsen et al., Diversity of the human intestinal microbial flora, Science, vol.308, issue.5728, pp.1635-1643, 2005.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1110591

URL : http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc1395357?pdf=render

T. Yatsunenko, F. E. Rey, M. J. Manary, I. Trehan, M. G. Dominguez-bello et al., Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography, Nature, vol.486, issue.7402, pp.222-229, 2012.
DOI : 10.1038/nature11053

URL : http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc3376388?pdf=render

J. E. Koenig, A. Spor, N. Scalfone, A. D. Fricker, J. Stombaugh et al., Succession of microbial consortia in the developing infant gut microbiome, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.108, issue.1, pp.4578-85, 2011.

L. Dethlefsen and D. A. Relman, Incomplete recovery and individualized responses of the human distal gut microbiota to repeated antibiotic perturbation, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.108, issue.1, pp.4554-61, 2011.

A. A. Salyers, A. Gupta, and Y. Wang, Human intestinal bacteria as reservoirs for antibiotic resistance genes, Trends in microbiology, vol.12, issue.9, pp.412-418, 2004.

, Calendrier utilisé pour déterminer les dates précises dans le cadre du questionnaire complémentaire, vol.8

, Visuel utilisé pour identifier l'antibiotique, vol.9

S. Oui, utilisez-vous des antibiotiques pour les soigner ? ? Oui ? Non Utilisez-vous des excréments comme engrais ? ? Oui ? Non Consommation de volaille? ? Oui ? Non Si "Oui

, Consommation de porc? ? Oui ? Non Si "Oui

, Hors hospitalisation, avez-vous pris des médicaments pendant la grossesse ? ? Oui / ? Non / ? Ne sait pas

. Si-"oui-;-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-ordonnance, Oui / ? Non / ? Ne sait pas Qui vous a conseillés ces médicaments ? ? Médecin / ? Sage-femme / ? Pharmacien / ? Epicier ? Guérisseur / ? Matrone / ? Ne sait pas ? Autre

, Si ordonnance >>> demander l'ordonnance : ? Acheté / ? Acheté autre médicament / ? Pas acheté Si pas d'ordonnance >>> pour quel motif

A. _-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-antibiotique-;-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-si, ? Oui / ? Non / ? Ne sait pas Si ATB : prescription pour quelle durée (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Durée de la prise (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Où avez-vous acheté les comprimés ? ? Pharmacie / ? Centre de santé / ? Médecin / ? Dépôt de médicament / ? Guérisseur / ? Épicerie ? Donnés/récupérés / ? Ne sait pas / ? Autre, Avez-vous gardé des comprimés ? ? Oui / ? Non Quels médicaments ? Molécule 1

?. _-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-antibiotique, /. Oui-/-?-non, and S. Ne-sait-pas, ATB : prescription pour quelle durée (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Durée de la prise (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Où avez-vous acheté les comprimés ? ? Pharmacie / ? Centre de santé / ? Médecin / ? Dépôt de médicament / ? Guérisseur / ? Épicerie ? Donnés/récupérés / ? Ne sait pas / ? Autre, Molécule, vol.2

?. _-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-antibiotique, /. Oui-/-?-non, and S. Ne-sait-pas, ATB : prescription pour quelle durée (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Durée de la prise (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Où avez-vous acheté les comprimés ? ? Pharmacie / ? Centre de santé / ? Médecin / ? Dépôt de médicament / ? Guérisseur / ? Épicerie ? Donnés/récupérés / ? Ne sait pas / ? Autre, Molécule, vol.3

A. Eu-de-la-fièvre-À-la-fin-de-la-grossesse-?-?-oui-?-non and A. Lieu-de-;-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-combien, Hôpital public / ? Hôpital privé ? Centre de santé public / ? Centre de santé privé ? Chez une matrone / ? Domicile / ? Autre

, ? Pas de contact direct avec le nouveau-né

A. Médicaux, ?. Chirurgicaux-;-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-antibiotique, /. Oui-/-?-non, and . Ne-sait-pas-si-;-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_, ATB : prescription pour quelle durée (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Durée de la prise (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Où avez-vous acheté les comprimés ? ? Pharmacie / ? Centre de santé / ? Médecin / ? Dépôt de médicament / ? Guérisseur / ? Épicerie ? Donnés/récupérés / ? Ne sait pas / ? Autre

, ? Pas de contact direct avec le nouveau-né

A. Médicaux, ?. Chirurgicaux-;-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-antibiotique, /. Oui-/-?-non, and . Ne-sait-pas-si-;-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_, ATB : prescription pour quelle durée (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Durée de la prise (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Où avez-vous acheté les comprimés ? ? Pharmacie / ? Centre de santé / ? Médecin / ? Dépôt de médicament / ? Guérisseur / ? Épicerie ? Donnés/récupérés / ? Ne sait pas / ? Autre

, ? Pas de contact direct avec le nouveau-né

A. Médicaux, ». Oui, ?. Molécule-:-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-antibiotique, and . Oui, Ne sait pas Si ATB : prescription pour quelle durée (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Durée de la prise (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Où avez-vous acheté les comprimés ? ? Pharmacie, -vous été hospitalisé pour une intervention chirurgicale dans l'année précédente ? ? Oui / ? Non Personne N°__ __ Catégorie

. ?-aide-soignant-/-?-matrone-?-autre-:-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_,

, ? Pas de contact direct avec le nouveau-né

A. Médicaux, ?. Chirurgicaux-;-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-antibiotique, /. Oui-/-?-non, and . Ne-sait-pas-si-;-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_, ATB : prescription pour quelle durée (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Durée de la prise (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Où avez-vous acheté les comprimés ? ? Pharmacie / ? Centre de santé / ? Médecin / ? Dépôt de médicament / ? Guérisseur / ? Épicerie ? Donnés/récupérés / ? Ne sait pas / ? Autre

, ? Pas de contact direct avec le nouveau-né

A. Médicaux, /. Chirurgicaux-;-?-oui, . Si, ». Oui, and . Molécule-:-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-antibiotique, ? Oui / ? Non / ? Ne sait pas Si ATB : prescription pour quelle durée (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Durée de la prise (en jour) _ _ _ _ _ Où avez-vous acheté les comprimés ?

?. Oui, /. Si, ». Oui, ?. Molécule1-:-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-antibiotique, /. Oui-/-?-non et al., Ne sait pas Si accouchement à l'hôpital : Quels sont les outils utilisés pour sectionner le cordon ?, Hôpital / ? Domicile S'agit-il d'un nouveau linge ? ? Oui / ? Non Si accouchement à domicile : Utilisation d'un clean birth kit? ? Oui / ? Non Utilisation de linges

». Si-«-oui, P. Du-linge-?-?-matrone-/-?-domicile, and /. Autres-;-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-s,

. _-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_, l'eau utilisée? ? Bouillie ? Filtrée ? Javel ? Sur'eau ? Bouteilles ? désinfection solaire ou laisser reposer ? Pas de traitement ? Autre: _ _ _ _ _ _ Quels sont les outils utilisés pour sectionner le cordon ? ? Bistouri / ? Ciseaux / ? Pinces / ? Autres : _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Quels sont les outils utilisés pour ligaturer le cordon ? ? Clamp de barre / ? Caoutchouc / ? Fil à coudre / ? Autres